Sourced research
Every claim below is followed by the source it came from and, where available, a direct link to the underlying article, museum record, project page, or academic paper. Where sources conflict, both are shown. Where a claim could not be verified from academic, museum, or institutional records, it is not included.
Cultures covered: Cook Islands · Fiji (Veiqia) · Hawai'i (Kākau) · Marquesas (Patu Tiki) · Māori (Tā Moko) · Samoa (Tatau / Pe'a / Malu) · Tahiti (Society Islands) · Tonga.
The ni'o mango (shark's tooth) motif is one of the most common motifs in Cook Islands patterns, represented by a simple triangle that is repeated to form dynamic patterns.
Source — Steev Peyroux, "The Language of Patterns in the Cook Islands," Scope: (Art & Design), 9, 2014, p. 44.
The tikitiki-tangata motif represents the 'image of man' and is well known throughout Polynesia, embodied by various tiki forms representing gods or supernatural beings. In Aitutaki, it is developed using more elliptical shapes.
Source — Steev Peyroux, "The Language of Patterns in the Cook Islands," Scope: (Art & Design ), 9, 2014, p. 44.
The repeating 'K' pattern from Mangaia originally represented the human figure.
Source — Steev Peyroux, "The Language of Patterns in the Cook Islands," Scope: (Art & Design ), 9, 2014, p. 44-45.
Rarotonga developed patterns using an elliptical eye motif.
Source — Steev Peyroux, "The Language of Patterns in the Cook Islands," Scope: (Art & Design ), 9, 2014, p. 44.
Traditional Cook Islands tattooing, known as tatau, involved tapping a needle into the skin using a wooden comb.
Source — Clinton Hewitt Artist, "From Tradition to Modernity: The Evolution of Cook Islands Tattoos," May 18, 2023.
Traditional Polynesian tattooing tools included combs made of bird or rat bones.
Source — Scribd, "Cook Islands Tattoo Patterns and Meanings," (document ).
Polynesian tattooing tools, relevant to the Cook Islands, included hand-tapping tools and uhi (chisels ) made from albatross or whale bone, attached to a wooden handle.
Source — Lars Krutak, "Embodied Symbols of the South Seas: Tattoo in Polynesia," June 3, 2013.
Tattooing was performed in a careful and ceremonial context by revered masters in the art.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools."
Traditionally, Polynesian girls and boys received their first tattoos at the onset of puberty.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools."
On Rorotonga (Rarotonga ), mourning patterns were tattooed on the neck and chest.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools."
Mike Tavioni (born 1947 ) is a world-renowned artist and cultural icon from the Cook Islands, recognized as a taonga (treasure). He is a master carver, poet, painter, tattoo artist, stone, wood, and bone carver, author, and social commentator. He is concerned with the perpetuation of Cook Island skills and traditional art.
Source — Wikipedia, "Mike Tavioni"; Cook Islands Tourism, "Mike Tavioni"; Instagram, "@miketavioni".
Croc Coulter is an Englishman living in Rarotonga who has become a master of traditional tattooing.
Source — YouTube, "Learning the Art of Traditional Tattooing on the Cook Islands," October 30, 2016.
Clive Nicholas is a professional tattooist of 16 years, specializing in Polynesian old and new art, and was taught by a master.
Source — Instagram, "@poly_tattscook_islands."
Tetini Pekepo, also known as "T," is a tattoo artist from Rarotonga, specializing in Polynesian (Maori-Cook Island Maori ) inspired tattoos.
Source — Reddit, "Tattoo DONE BY Tetini Pekepo AKA "T". Rarotonga, Cook ...," 5 years ago.
Stormy Kara is from the Cook Islands and is based out of Pacific Ink's Kareha Art Studio in Rarotonga.
Source — Art Body, "STORMY."
Christian missionaries banned and restricted traditional tattoo practices in the Cook Islands during the 19th century, condemning them as pagan practices.
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012.
In the Cook Islands, individuals who received tattoos were fined or given punishment work details under rules imposed by church authorities.
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012.
There is archival evidence that some tattoos were physically removed and scraped off people's bodies with pieces of coral.
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012.
The suppression led to a form of cultural amnesia across Polynesia, where traditional tattooing virtually died out, with the exception of Samoa and New Zealand.
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012.
Many once-revered designs were lost, and the ancient technique of applying tattoos by striking an ink-soaked bone chisel with a wooden club was no longer practiced.
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012.
Interest in tattooing revived in the Cook Islands in the 1990s as part of a broader cultural movement involving locals rediscovering their heritage through traditional arts and crafts.
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012.
Croc Coulter, one of the few tattooists in the Cook Islands practicing the traditional technique, notes that while some designs were lost, others survived through carving, weaving, and tapa (bark cloth art ).
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012.
Tatau or tātatau is the traditional term for tattooing in the Cook Islands. The English word "tattoo" is derived from these Polynesian terms.
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012; The Coconet TV, "Get a Cook Island Tātatau."
Tatau can also mean "to read," referring to the ability to discern a person's lineage by examining their tattooed skin.
Source — Te Are Tatatau (Facebook video ), "One of the things our Cook Islands people start to notice when learning more abo...", 4 years ago.
Mana refers to spiritual force and energy, a concept that transcends all Polynesian cultures and is often associated with tattoos.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Polynesian Tattoo: History, Meanings and Traditional Designs."
Ni'o mango is a common Cook Islands tattoo motif, represented by a simple repeated triangle, symbolizing a shark's tooth.
Source — Steev Peyroux, "The Language of Patterns in the Cook Islands," Scope: (Art & Design ), 9, 2014, p. 44.
Tikitiki-tangata is a motif representing the 'image of man' or human figure, often embodying gods or supernatural beings.
Source — Steev Peyroux, "The Language of Patterns in the Cook Islands," Scope: (Art & Design ), 9, 2014, p. 44.
Myth
It is acceptable for non-Polynesians to get any Polynesian tattoo design solely for aesthetic appeal.
Correction
While there is no universal consensus on cultural appropriation, many Cook Islanders and Polynesians emphasize that certain tattoos are deeply tied to family lineage, island origin, and cultural identity. Getting such tattoos without understanding or connection to their meaning can be seen as disrespectful or a misrepresentation of their cultural significance. It is crucial to respect the cultural context and meaning behind the designs.
Source — Reddit, "Is it ok for a non Polynesian to get a Polynesian style tattoo?", December 4, 2020; Facebook, "Is it appropriate to get a Polynesian tattoo if you're not from the culture?", March 9, 2024; Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012.
Myth
All Polynesian tattoo designs are generic and interchangeable across different island cultures.
Correction
Each Polynesian island culture, including the Cook Islands, has its own distinct tattoo traditions, motifs, and meanings. While some overarching themes exist (like mana ), specific patterns often denote origin, family line, social status, and personal history unique to a particular island or even a specific family within that island. Relying on generic "Polynesian" designs can lead to misinterpretations or a loss of specific cultural identity.
Source — Yahoo News, "Cook Islands rediscover the lost art of Pacific tattoo," September 16, 2012; Medium, "A Brief History of Traditional Polynesian Tattoos."
Patterns vary between regions, but common motifs include turtles, fish, shark teeth, pottery, and basketwork.
Source — Fijian Tattoo Motifs and Meanings, Scribd, Unknown
These tattoos often feature intricate patterns and motifs such as the Tanoa (kava bowl ), Drua (double-hulled canoe), and Masi (bark cloth), each symbolizing different aspects of Fijian culture.
Source — 333+ Fijian Tattoos in 2026, blackink.ai, 2026
The daubati (tattooist ) painted guidelines on each girl’s body before tapping the desired weniqia (patterns) into the flesh using iqia (tattooing tool) dipped in soot.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
Tools included pigment typically made from dakua gum soot mixed with a little water, damp barkcloth rugs to wipe up the blood, beater sticks, and tattooing picks, each consisting of gasau reed or duruka cane handle with bone or thorn teeth set at one end at right angles to the shaft. Bone blades were typically cut into sawtoothed edge.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
For chiefly girls the soot was obtained by charring shelled lauci or sikeci candlenuts over a fire, catching the sooty smoke in an overturned pot, the nuts being strung on a sasa coconut leaf midrib for the purpose. The soot was then scraped free and mixed with candlenut oil. For commoners the soot was generally that obtained by burning the makadre resin from the dakua tree. In some hill districts dye was obtained from the gumu tree.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
Girls were tattooed at puberty; the ceremony initiated them as women and signified their eligibility for marriage.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
The Veiqia Project is a creative research project inspired by the practice of Fijian female tattooing, involving a collective of Fijian women artists dedicated to its revitalization.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "About", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
Key individuals involved in The Veiqia Project include Joana Monolagi, Dr. Tarisi Vunidilo, Luisa Keteiyau Tora, Donita Vatuinaruku Hulme, Dulcie Stewart, Margaret Aull, and Yasbelle Kerkow. These individuals have contributed to research, exhibitions, and the creation of new artwork inspired by veiqia.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "About", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
In 2008, Luisa Tora, Cresantia (Frances ) Koya Vaka’uta, Ann Tarte, and Jakki Mua co-curated the exhibition, VASU: Pacific Women of Power, which stimulated discussion around the lost art of female tattooing in Fiji.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "About", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
Dr. Tarisi Vunidilo designed and implemented the inaugural Marama Ni Viti course for the Pasifika Education Centre in South Auckland, focusing on Fijian women and leadership and cultural knowledge.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "About", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
Luisa Tora undertook an internship with the Pacific Curator’s Desk at Auckland Museum, working on projects that included selecting Fijian tattoo combs from the collection and writing descriptions.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "About", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
The arrival of Christian missionaries in the 1830s led to a significant decline in veiqia, and by the early 20th century, it was a rare sight.
Source — Fiji Travel Pro, "Learn About Fijian Tattoo Culture", Fiji Travel Pro, 2026.
Colonial administrations imposed Western gender roles onto local communities, leading to the suppression of veiqia and its sacred rituals.
Source — Holly Otto, "Faces of Resistance: The Revival of Female Tattoos in Melanesia", Young Australians in International Affairs, 2025.
Missionaries frequently equated European clothing with notions of modesty and dignity, implicitly or explicitly devaluing traditional adornments like veiqia. Women who bore these sacred markings were sometimes made to feel ashamed, leading them to hide their tattoos.
Source — Fiji Travel Pro, "Learn About Fijian Tattoo Culture", Fiji Travel Pro, 2026.
The Veiqia Project, a collective of artists with Fijian heritage, has been instrumental in the modern revival of veiqia. They have researched museum collections and spoken with community elders to deepen their understanding and share this heritage.
Source — Fiji Travel Pro, "Learn About Fijian Tattoo Culture", Fiji Travel Pro, 2026.
The Veiqia Project started as a creative research project in 2015, leading to an exhibition in March 2016, and continues to work towards the revitalization of veiqia.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "About", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
Tattoo artist Julia Mage’au Gray is credited with helping to revive these traditions in both PNG and Fiji, inspiring a generation of women to explore their connections to the unique designs of their villages and cultures.
Source — Holly Otto, "Faces of Resistance: The Revival of Female Tattoos in Melanesia", Young Australians in International Affairs, 2025.
QIA: In Fiji, women were the tattoo artists (daubati ) and recipients of revered qia (tattoo).
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
IQIA: The tattooing tool used by the daubati.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
WENIQIA: Tattoo patterns and designs.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
QIAIQIA: Patterning, or drawing of patterns.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
QISA, IQISA, QISAQISA: To paint the body ready for tattooing.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
QUMU, IQUMU: Can be used interchangeably with qisa. The only difference is that qisa tend to follow and outline in a linear fashion whereby qumu is more painting the whole surface without an outline.
Source — The Veiqia Project, "Veiqia: na iVolavosa Vakaviti", The Veiqia Project, Unknown.
Myth
Fiji does not have a traditionally strong cultural tattoo practice like the Samoans or Micronesians.
Correction
Veiqia was a sacred female tattooing practice in Fiji, deeply tied to culture, beliefs, and social standing, and was fundamental to feminine identity. The art of tattooing is even said to have originated in Fiji in Pacific mythology.
Source — Holly Otto, "Faces of Resistance: The Revival of Female Tattoos in Melanesia", Young Australians in International Affairs, 2025. https://www.youngausint.org.au/post/faces-of-resistance-the-revival-of-female-tattoos-in-melanesia; Fiji Travel Pro, "Learn About Fijian Tattoo Culture", Fiji Travel Pro, 2026. https://fijitravelpro.com/fiji-tattoo-traditions/
Myth
Tattooing in Fiji is associated with drugs and those associated with prison in modern times.
Correction
This is a modern misconception. Historically, Veiqia was a revered practice, signifying a woman's transition into adulthood, marriageability, and spiritual well-being. The Veiqia Project and other initiatives are working to revive and reclaim these ancestral tattooing practices and their cultural significance, moving away from negative modern associations.
Source — IYAYA NI VEIQIA E JAMANI Fijian Tattooing Practices and ..., univerlag.uni-goettingen.de, Unknown. https://univerlag.uni-goettingen.de/bitstream/handle/3/isbn-978-3-86395-633-2.15/ESG_BUCH_15_vunidilo.pdf; Fiji Travel Pro, "Learn About Fijian Tattoo Culture", Fiji Travel Pro, 2026. https://fijitravelpro.com/fiji-tattoo-traditions/
Hawaiian tattoos, or kākau, are powerful symbols reflecting heritage, family ties, responsibility (kuleana ), and commitment to duties and community.
Source — M. Kruse, "The Deeper Meaning of Hawaiian Tattoos: Culture, Kuleana, and Craft," Hawaii.com, 2025.
Kākau was used to show family lineage, personal accomplishments, or protection from harm. Certain patterns could identify a person’s home island or status in society. Some were placed in sacred locations, like near the spine or on the hands, to guard a person’s spirit.
Source — M. Kruse, "The Deeper Meaning of Hawaiian Tattoos: Culture, Kuleana, and Craft," Hawaii.com, 2025.
Designs were often passed down through generations and altered slightly to make each one unique to the wearer.
Source — M. Kruse, "The Deeper Meaning of Hawaiian Tattoos: Culture, Kuleana, and Craft," Hawaii.com, 2025.
In ancient Hawaiian society, tattoos were a clear indicator of an individual’s social status and rank. Only those of high status or rank were permitted to have tattoos, and the design and placement of these tattoos signified their position within the community.
Source — M. Kruse, "The Deeper Meaning of Hawaiian Tattoos: Culture, Kuleana, and Craft," Hawaii.com, 2025.
Facial tattoos were reserved for chiefs and other high-ranking individuals, serving as a visible mark of their authority and prestige. Body tattoos were more common among warriors and commoners, each design reflecting their role and achievements.
Source — M. Kruse, "The Deeper Meaning of Hawaiian Tattoos: Culture, Kuleana, and Craft," Hawaii.com, 2025.
Some designs are kapu (sacred ) and meant only for specific families or lineages.
Source — M. Kruse, "The Deeper Meaning of Hawaiian Tattoos: Culture, Kuleana, and Craft," Hawaii.com, 2025.
Common contemporary symbols include waves, shark teeth (niho mano ), and native plants like taro or ulu.
Source — M. Kruse, "The Deeper Meaning of Hawaiian Tattoos: Culture, Kuleana, and Craft," Hawaii.com, 2025.
Honu (Green Sea Turtle ) symbolizes navigation, longevity, peace, and safe passage.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Hāhālua (Manta Ray ) represents grace, wisdom, and quiet strength.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Nalu (Waves ) symbolize life cycles, transformation, and resilience.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Pua (Flowers - Hibiscus/Plumeria ) symbolize beauty, hospitality, and happiness.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Lau Maile (Maile Leaves ) symbolize sacred connection, peace, and celebration.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
La (Sun ) represents energy, clarity, and new beginnings.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Makau (Fish Hook ) symbolizes prosperity, strength, and success at sea.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Moʻo (Gecko/Lizard ) is often seen as a protector and bearer of good fortune.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Niho Mano (Shark Teeth ) patterns can mean protection, strength, courage, or aggression/dominance, depending on direction and size.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Spearhead motifs are associated with warrior spirit, provider role, and readiness to protect.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Enata (Human Figures ) can symbolize community, family, relationships, or specific ancestors or deities.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Copying genealogical designs (large bands, sleeves, leg pieces ) is forbidden as they document ancestry, social rank, and family history.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Face tattoos are considered kapu (restricted ) and were reserved for individuals with specific cultural obligations, authority, or ceremonial roles.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Certain symbols are reserved for Aliʻi (royalty ) and Kahuna (priests, spiritual leaders) and carry responsibilities, not just meaning.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Traditional Kākau is performed with hand tools created by the master tattooist, typically made from sharpened albatross bone due to its hardness and less porous nature. Tools vary in width depending on the area of coverage.
Source — "Kākau: The Art of Native Hawaiian Tattooing," Just Living 808, 2018.
Traditionally, ink was made from the soot of the kukui tree nut. However, commercial ink is often used today for better longevity and performance.
Source — "Kākau: The Art of Native Hawaiian Tattooing," Just Living 808, 2018.
The tattooing technique is hand-tapped (kākau ), where the bone tool is applied to the skin and tapped with another stick to drive the ink into the skin. The tapping rhythm is part of the ceremonial process.
Source — "Kākau: The Art of Native Hawaiian Tattooing," Just Living 808, 2018.
The process of receiving a traditional Kākau tattoo is not open to everyone; the master tattooist determines an individual's readiness through personal interviews. A meaningful reason, such as a connection to one's ancestors and Hawaiian identity, is required.
Source — "Kākau: The Art of Native Hawaiian Tattooing," Just Living 808, 2018.
The tattoo is considered a visual reminder of one's responsibility to family and community. Inappropriate behavior can deem an individual not ready for a tattoo.
Source — "Kākau: The Art of Native Hawaiian Tattooing," Just Living 808, 2018.
Keone Nunes is a master of traditional Hawaiian Kākau, who has taught the art for more than two decades. He is credited with reviving the nearly lost art of Native Hawaiian tattooing.
Source — "Reviving the Nearly Lost Art of Native Hawaiian Tattooing," American Indian Magazine, Unknown.
Keliʻi Makua is a Kahuna Kā Uhi (Uhi Master ), who apprenticed under Keone Nunes for nearly three decades. He is the only Hawaiian in 200 years to have received the honor of conducting the uniki (ceremony) as Kahuna Kā Uhi.
Source — "Kākau: Traditional Art of Hawaiian Tattooing," Just Living 808, Unknown.
Keliʻi Makua is focused on revitalizing the practice of Kākau Uhi using the traditional method of aʻo aku, aʻo mai (teaching and learning ).
Source — "Keoneʻulaokamakauhi Keliʻiokalani Teawenohoitalani Mākua," Native Arts and Cultures Foundation, Unknown.
After the death of Kamehameha I in 1819, the kapu (taboo ) system began to collapse, leading to the discouragement and suppression of Kākau. The closely guarded secrets of Kākau died along with the kahuna (experts) who applied the designs.
Source — "Tattoo and Taboo: Kakau in Hawai`i," PBS Skin Stories, 2003.
European settlers and missionaries arrived in the Hawaiian islands soon after Captain James Cook, contributing to the erosion of traditional practices like Kākau.
Source — "Tattoo and Taboo: Kakau in Hawai`i," PBS Skin Stories, 2003.
The revival of Kākau represents a reclamation of identity, history, and spiritual connection for Hawaiians.
Source — "The Revival of Hawaiian Tattoo Culture: Meaning and Modern Trends," lyslaw.com, 2025.
Keone Nunes is a master tattoo artist who has been at the forefront of the movement to bring "uhi" (traditional tattooing ) back to the islands, starting his practice in 1996 using the traditional Polynesian tapping method.
Source — "Keone Nunes - First Peoples Fund," First Peoples Fund, Unknown; "Keone Nunes - Keaopanopanoʻo nuʻumea," imagomundicollection.org, Unknown.
Keliʻi Makua was recognized as "Kahuna Ka Uhi" (Priest of Tattooing ) in December 2016 through a ceremony that had not been performed for over 200 years, marking a significant event in the revival.
Source — "Featured Artist: Keliʻi Makua," Hawaii Tattoo Expo, Unknown.
Ala Niho – leg stripe tattoo design, literally "tooth path" (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Alakaʻi – guide or leader (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Aliʻi – sacred chiefs (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
ʻAmaʻu – a fern that grows in the uplands (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
ʻAumakua – ancestral guardian spirit (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
ʻAwa or ʻAva – Piper methysticum; a plant in the pepper family; a narcotic drink made from the roots of this plant (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Halau – schools (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Hulu Pueo – the feathers of the owl (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Inu ʻAwa – to drink ʻawa (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Kahuna – a master artist, artisan, or craftsman (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Kakau – (v. ) traditional Hawaiian art of tattooing.
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Kapu – taboos (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Kauä – a class of Hawaiian outcasts (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Kuleana – responsibility, privilege (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Maiʻa – a fruit that has seeds, but doesn't grow from seeds; banana (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Mana – a person's spiritual power or life force.
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Moku O Keawe – a poetic name for the island of Hawaiʻi.
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Pahupu – an elite company of Hawaiian warriors from Maui.
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Palaʻai – coward.
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Peʻahi Niu – crescent fan; Hawaiian tattoo design based on the fan.
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Pueo – the Hawaiian owl.
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Pule – a prayer, to pray (H ).
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Uhi – Hawaiian traditional tattoo art.
Source — "Skin Stories: Glossary," PBS, Unknown.
Myth
Any Polynesian-style tattoo is appropriate for anyone to get, regardless of cultural background.
Correction
While Hawaiian tattoos share Polynesian roots, they are culturally distinct. Designs are not generic; they are tied to genealogy, social role, spiritual protection, and personal milestones. Copying designs, especially those in the "Red Zone" (sacred or strictly off-limits ), is considered cultural appropriation and disrespectful.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Myth
Non-Hawaiians cannot or should not get Hawaiian-inspired tattoos.
Correction
Non-Hawaiians can respectfully get Hawaiian-inspired tattoos if they choose culturally safe symbols (Green Zone ), avoid sacred or genealogical designs (Red Zone), and work with knowledgeable artists who understand Hawaiian tattoo meanings. The intention and understanding behind the tattoo are crucial.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
Myth
All Hawaiian tattoo designs are purely decorative.
Correction
Traditional Hawaiian tattoos carry mana (spiritual energy and protection ) and are often connected to ʻAumākua (ancestral guardian spirits). Large compositions can function as genealogical records, visually recording lineage, family history, social role, and ancestral connections. Without the associated prayers and cultural context, a design lacks its true meaning.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026; "Marked | Hawaiian Tattoo | Traditional Tattoos," mauimagazine.net, 2011.
Myth
Facial tattoos in Hawaiian Kākau are merely a stylistic choice.
Correction
Facial tattooing is considered kapu (restricted ) and was traditionally reserved for individuals with specific cultural obligations, authority, or ceremonial roles. Placing Hawaiian-inspired tattoos on the face without direct cultural ties is highly inappropriate.
Source — "Hawaiian Tattoos Meanings: Sacred Symbols & Kākau Traditions," Polynesian Pride, 2026.
The term "Enata" in Marquesan tattooing refers to symbols representing people, with variations in posture and arrangement conveying different meanings such as ordinary individuals, warriors, or divinities.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
A simple Enata figure with arms and legs as direct, unspaced shapes (squares/rectangles ) represents ordinary people.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
An Enata figure with space and definition between the body and independent legs signifies a warrior or hero, often associated with legendary figures like Kena and Pohu.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
An Enata figure with bent legs symbolizes a sitting person, representing an etua (divinity ) or a deified ancestor.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
The trunk (torso ) in Enata representation is highly significant, as the stomach was traditionally considered the center of a person's mana (vital energy, power, authority, prestige) across Polynesian cultures.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
The "Ani Ata" motif, a simplified form of Enata in repeating patterns with uplifted hands, means "cloudy sky" and represents ancestors and the sky, drawing from a creation legend.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Two Enata figures mirrored horizontally typically represent a couple or a marriage.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Varying sizes of Enata can represent different members of a family, such as parents and children.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Upside-down Enata symbols represent defeated enemies or opponents.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
An Enata symbol holding a spear above its head specifically represents a warrior.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
The term "Tiki" (or "ti'i" in Tahitian, "ki'i" in Hawaiian ) in Polynesia indicates a figure or image, often with human-like traits, and is represented by a human figure with marked features such as big eyes, nose, ears, and mouth.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Tiki | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for gods, ancestors, and ...", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
The Marquesan tattooing tradition is known as "patutiki," which translates to "drawn figures."
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Tiki | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for gods, ancestors, and ...", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Common anatomical traits of the Tiki include big eyes and nostrils, an open mouth, and prominent ears; Tiki eyes are often depicted closed, but nostrils are always shown due to the belief that Tiki could smell dangers before seeing them.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Tiki | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for gods, ancestors, and ...", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Independent motifs such as Tiki eyes, ears, mouth, or hands can be used in traditional designs to represent a deity, a demigod, or a human with special abilities.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Tiki | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for gods, ancestors, and ...", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Tiki hands are often depicted with three fingers, particularly in Maori traditions, symbolizing concepts like ancestors, balance, fire-making, and prosperity, and generally represent protection and fertility.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Tiki | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for gods, ancestors, and ...", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Tiki arms symbolize strength, or growth when designed pointing upward.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Tiki | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for gods, ancestors, and ...", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Traditional Polynesian tattooing, including Marquesan, utilized a hand-tapping technique where a mallet gently struck a wooden handle attached to a small comb made of bone, shark tooth, or tortoiseshell to pierce the skin.
Source — Ponant, "Polynesian Tattoos: A History", escales.ponant.com, 2026-03-02
The ink used in traditional tattooing was made from candlenut soot, diluted in oil or water.
Source — Ponant, "Polynesian Tattoos: A History", escales.ponant.com, 2026-03-02
Tattooing in Polynesia, including the Marquesas, had a quasi-religious origin, with mythology suggesting humans learned tattooing from the Gods, giving it special status as a treasured family and cultural inheritance.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown
Tattoos were not applied spontaneously but in a careful and ceremonial context by revered masters in the art, and it was believed that a person's mana (life force ) was expressed through their tattoos.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown
Traditional Polynesian tattoos were an ancient custom used to signify rites of passage and milestones in life, often starting at puberty.
Source — PBS, "Polynesian Tattoo", pbs.org, 2017-08-03
The process of tattooing could be very painful, and on the Marquesas Islands, artists might chant songs or soothe wounds between sittings with a hibiscus and banana ointment to alleviate discomfort.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown
In some Polynesian cultures, high-ranking initiates were accompanied by a commoner who was tattooed simultaneously to share the pain.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown
In the Marquesas, traditional tattoo artists were known as tuhuka or tuhuna patu tiki.
Source — Aranui, "Māori tattoo : History and origins of an ancestral Polynesian art", aranui.com, Unknown
Tuhuna patu tiki translates to "one who strikes or marks designs" and worked under the protection of a patron deity.
Source — Lars Krutak, "In 1891, German explorer and ethnologist Karl von den Steinen...", facebook.com/larskrutak, 2025-06-11
The office of tuhuna was hereditary, with each great family having its own tattooists trained across generations.
Source — Lars Krutak, "In 1891, German explorer and ethnologist Karl von den Steinen...", facebook.com/larskrutak, 2025-06-11
Heretu Tetahiotupa is a native Marquesan filmmaker who directed "Patutiki: The Guardians of the Marquesan Tattoo," a documentary exploring the art form's cultural roots and spiritual dimension.
Source — National Gallery of Australia, "Patutiki: The Guardians of the Marquesan Tattoo", nga.gov.au, Unknown
Philippe Aukara is a Tahitian tattoo artist based in Papeete, who practices both modern Polynesian tattooing (a mix of cultures with shading ) and Marquesan tattooing (Patutiki, with more black flat tints and no shading).
Source — Ponant, "Polynesian Tattoos: A History", escales.ponant.com, 2026-03-02
Eddy Tata, born on the Marquesas Island of Ua Pou, is a resident traditional Polynesian tattoo artist on the Aranui 5 passenger ship. He learned from his uncle, Moana Kohumoetini, and creates unique designs based on passengers' personal stories.
Source — Aranui, "Māori tattoo : History and origins of an ancestral Polynesian art", aranui.com, Unknown
Tattooing was declared illegal by colonizers, the church, and the state in the Marquesas Islands in the early 1900s.
Source — National Gallery of Australia, "Patutiki: The Guardians of the Marquesan Tattoo", nga.gov.au, Unknown
Missionaries in the late 18th century considered the traditional practice of Polynesian tattooing barbaric and quickly banned it.
Source — Ponant, "Polynesian Tattoos: A History", escales.ponant.com, 2024-10-24
The first Marquesan chief to embrace Catholicism in 1819 forbade people from making and wearing tattoos.
Source — The Rigneys' Great Adventure, "Marquesan", rigneyskandu.com, Unknown
The modern revival of tattooing in French Polynesia, including Marquesan tattoos, began in the 1980s.
Source — The Rigneys' Great Adventure, "Marquesan", rigneyskandu.com, Unknown
The revival of tattooing in Polynesia is part of a wider resurgence of Polynesian culture, including tapa making, weaving, carving, and dance, which also began in the early 1980s.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown
Initially, traditional wooden and bone tools were used in the revival, but authorities banned them on health grounds in 1986, leading to the use of electric machines.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown
The film "Patutiki: The Guardians of the Marquesan Tattoo" highlights how Marquesan people are rediscovering and celebrating their art form after its suppression.
Source — National Gallery of Australia, "Patutiki: The Guardians of the Marquesan Tattoo", nga.gov.au, Unknown
Enata (or enana ) is the general Marquesan term for symbols representing people, which can distinguish between ordinary people, warriors, and gods based on specific forms and arrangements.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Patu Tiki is the Marquesan term for their tattooing tradition, meaning "drawn figures" or literally "to strike an image" (patu 'i te tiki ).
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Tiki | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for gods, ancestors, and ...", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown; Aranui, "Māori tattoo : History and origins of an ancestral Polynesian art", aranui.com, Unknown
Tiki (or ti'i in Tahitian, ki'i in Hawaiian ) is a Polynesian word indicating a figure or image, often human-like, representing deities, demigods, or deified ancestors.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Tiki | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for gods, ancestors, and ...", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Tuhuka (or tuhuna ) patu tiki refers to the traditional Marquesan tattoo artists, meaning "one who strikes or marks designs."
Source — Lars Krutak, "In 1891, German explorer and ethnologist Karl von den Steinen...", facebook.com/larskrutak, 2025-06-11; Aranui, "Māori tattoo : History and origins of an ancestral Polynesian art", aranui.com, Unknown
Mana is a concept referring to vital energy, power, authority, or prestige, believed to be expressed through tattoos in Polynesian cultures.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown; Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "The purpose of Polynesian tattoos", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Ani Ata means "cloudy sky" and is a simplified Enata motif representing ancestors and the sky.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, "Enata | Polynesian Tattoo Symbols for people explained", polynesiantattoosymbols.com, Unknown
Myth
There is a "long-lost Tahitian alphabet" that can be used for tattooing names, derived from anthropologist Willowdean C. Handy's categorization of Marquesan tattoo motifs.
Correction
Historically, Polynesian languages were oral, not written. Handy's alphabetical system (a, aa, b, bb, etc. ) was merely a method for categorizing motifs in her books, not an alphabet. This misinterpretation by a young tattooist led to the modern trend of tattooing names in this 'ancient Tahitian' style.
Source — Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown
Myth
Polynesian tattoos are merely decorative or a fashion trend.
Correction
While modern interpretations exist, traditional Polynesian tattoos, including Marquesan Patu Tiki, were deeply spiritual, signifying rites of passage, social status, genealogy, protection, and a person's mana (life force ). They served as a form of identity and a visual language in societies without written alphabets.
Source — Ponant, "Polynesian Tattoos: A History", escales.ponant.com, 2024-10-24; Pitt Rivers Museum, "Polynesian tattooing tools", web.prm.ox.ac.uk, Unknown
Tā Moko serves as a visual identifier, reflecting the wearer's rank, status, power, position, and lineage within Māori society.
Source — Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown
The head was considered the most sacred part of the body in ancient Māori tradition, and high-ranking Māori were tattooed on the face. Those without facial tattoos were seen as having no social status.
Source — Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown
Male facial Moko are traditionally divided into eight sections, each conveying specific information about the wearer:
Source — Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown; Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Ancestry is indicated on each side of the face; the left side generally represents the father’s lineage, and the right side represents the mother’s. Noble or noteworthy descent was a primary requirement for receiving a moko.
Source — Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown; Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Common Māori tattoo designs include Koru (spiral ), Single twist, Hei matau (fish hook), Double and triple twist, Pākati (dog skin cloak), Taratarekae (inspired by whale teeth), Unaunahi (fish scales), and Ahu ahu mataroa. (Specific meanings for these individual motifs were not detailed in the provided sources, only their names as common designs).
Source — Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown
Traditional Māori tattooing did not use needles; instead, uhi (chisels ) made from shark teeth, sharpened bone (such as albatross bone), or sharp stones were used.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown; Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Uhi chisels were either plain and smooth or serrated, and were used interchangeably depending on the desired pattern or design. These chisels produced deep grooved lines unique to Māori moko.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown; Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
The inks used were made from natural products. Black pigments were created from burnt wood, while lighter pigments were derived from caterpillars infected with a fungus or from burnt kauri gum mixed with animal fat.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Black pigment from burnt wood was reserved for facial tattoos, while lighter pigments were used for outlines and less revered tattoos.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
The pigments were stored in ornate containers called oko, which were considered family heirlooms and often buried when not in use.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
The tattooing process was very painful. Deep cuts were incised into the skin, and the chisel was dipped in pigment and tapped into the cuts. Another method involved striking the chisel with a mallet. This technique resulted in grooves in the healed skin, unlike the smooth surface left by needlepoint tattoos.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
The tattooing was a long and labor-intensive process, with only a few body parts tattooed at a time to allow for healing.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
The tattooing process was considered sacred. Those undergoing or involved in the process could not eat with their hands or speak to anyone outside the tattooing group. They were expected to endure the pain without crying out, as it was seen as a sign of weakness.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
During facial tattooing, individuals had to abstain from sexual intimacy and solid foods. They were fed through a wooden funnel to prevent contamination of the swollen skin until the wounds healed.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Karaka tree leaves were applied as a balm after sessions to hasten healing. Music, singing, and chanting often accompanied the tattooing to help soothe the pain.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
The Māori tattoo artist is called the tohunga ta moko, meaning moko specialist. These artists are highly respected and considered tapu (inviolable or holy ).
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Sir Derek Lardelli is a contemporary master tattooist who has contributed to the understanding and revival of Tā Moko artistry through research into ancient preserved Māori heads (toi moko ) at Te Papa, the national museum. His work has shaped contemporary moko artists' understanding of traditional delivery and the total understanding of human form by ancestral artists.
Source — The Guardian, "Ancient preserved heads give up their secrets as Māori tattoos see ...", theguardian.com, 2025-10-18
Raniera McGrath is a master artist who offered Raniera Warren a moko kanohi (full facial tattoo ). (Specific lineage and further contributions not detailed in source).
Source — The Guardian, "Ancient preserved heads give up their secrets as Māori tattoos see ...", theguardian.com, 2025-10-18
Henriata Nicholas of Rotorua is an artist known for working with traditional hand-made tools. (Specific lineage and further contributions not detailed in source ).
Source — New Zealand.com, "Tā moko: traditional Māori tattoo", newzealand.com, Unknown
Tristan Marler of Manawa Tapu, based in Titirangi, Auckland, is a leading Tā Moko and toi Māori practitioner specializing in traditional and contemporary Māori art. (Specific lineage and further contributions not detailed in source ).
Source — Instagram, "Maori Tattoo Artist Auckland", instagram.com, Unknown
Tim Hunt is a highly skilled artist in contemporary Maori and Polynesian styled work, sensitive to cultural appropriation issues. (Specific lineage and further contributions not detailed in source ).
Source — Reddit, "Best traditional maori tattoo artists?", reddit.com, 2015-10-08
New Zealand was colonized in 1840, and a suppression act in 1907 outlawed the teaching and practice of Māori culture, including Tā Moko. This led to a significant decline in the practice, with Tā Moko becoming scarce and primarily seen among tribal elders or in old photographs.
Source — Al Jazeera, "‘My culture on my face’: New Zealand’s Maori assert identity", aljazeera.com, 2020-02-17
Missionaries and Pākehā (Europeans ) generally perceived Tā Moko as a distasteful practice, contributing to its disruption and decline from the mid-19th century onwards. This view particularly affected young Māori men.
Source — Te Papa, "Tāmoko | Māori tattoos: history, practice, and meanings", tepapa.govt.nz, Unknown
The last men to be tattooed traditionally died during the 1920s, though women in various districts continued to be tattooed through the 1920s.
Source — Te Papa, "Tāmoko | Māori tattoos: history, practice, and meanings", tepapa.govt.nz, Unknown
A significant revival of Tā Moko occurred in the 1970s and 1980s, linked to a broader Māori cultural renaissance that included the resurgence of the Māori language and arts. A handful of Māori artists began researching and relearning the art to bring it back into practice.
Source — Al Jazeera, "‘My culture on my face’: New Zealand’s Maori assert identity", aljazeera.com, 2020-02-17; The Guardian, "Māori moko facial tattoos revived by a new generation with designs on the future", theguardian.com, 2022-06-11; France24, "In New Zealand, Moko tattoos experience revival as Māori 'reclaim a sense of identity'", observers.france24.com, 2022-07-29
Mokonui-a-rangi Smith is a contemporary practitioner who works with traditional uhi (hand tools ) and is part of the Māori revival effort, aiming to recover ancestral practices. He notes a significant increase in Māori people seeking Tā Moko since the Covid-19 pandemic, driven by a desire to reconnect with their ancestors and culture.
Source — France24, "In New Zealand, Moko tattoos experience revival as Māori 'reclaim a sense of identity'", observers.france24.com, 2022-07-29
The increasing visibility of Tā Moko on public figures, such as foreign affairs minister Nanaia Mahuta (who received a moko kauae in 2016 ) and news anchor Oriini Kaipara (the first woman with a moko kauae to host prime-time television news in 2021), has normalized the practice and bolstered a sense of pride and identity.
Source — Al Jazeera, "‘My culture on my face’: New Zealand’s Maori assert identity", aljazeera.com, 2020-02-17; The Guardian, "Māori moko facial tattoos revived by a new generation with designs on the future", theguardian.com, 2022-06-11; France24, "In New Zealand, Moko tattoos experience revival as Māori 'reclaim a sense of identity'", observers.france24.com, 2022-07-29
Despite the revival, individuals wearing Tā Moko, particularly on the face, still face discrimination and racist abuse. Petitions have been launched to formally prohibit discrimination against people with moko.
Source — The Guardian, "Māori moko facial tattoos revived by a new generation with designs on the future", theguardian.com, 2022-06-11; France24, "In New Zealand, Moko tattoos experience revival as Māori 'reclaim a sense of identity'", observers.france24.com, 2022-07-29
Moko: Māori tattooing designs on the face or body done under traditional protocols. It also refers to the tattoo itself.
Source — Te Aka Māori Dictionary, "moko", maoridictionary.co.nz, Unknown; Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown
Tā Moko: The action or process of tattooing; the permanent marking or tattooing as customarily practiced by Māori.
Source — Te Aka Māori Dictionary, "tā moko", maoridictionary.co.nz, Unknown; Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown
Kauae: Refers to moko on the chins of women, also known as moko kauae.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Kirituhi: Non-traditional tattooing that is not done using Māori protocols or imagery; Māori-inspired designs that do not include someone's heritage and are culturally appropriate for non-Māori (Pākehā ).
Source — Te Aka Māori Dictionary, "kirituhi", maoridictionary.co.nz, Unknown; Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Tohunga Ta Moko: A moko specialist or expert tattoo artist, highly respected and considered tapu.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Tapu: Sacred, inviolable, holy. The tattooing process and those involved were considered to be in a state of tapu.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown; Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Uhi: Traditional Māori tattooing chisels, made from bone, shark teeth, or stone, used to cut grooves into the skin.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown; Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Oko: Ornate containers used to store pigments, often considered family heirlooms.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Whakapapa: Genealogy, ancestry, lineage. Tā Moko visually signifies a person's whakapapa.
Source — Al Jazeera, "‘My culture on my face’: New Zealand’s Maori assert identity", aljazeera.com, 2020-02-17; Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Mana: Prestige, authority, power, achievements. The chin area (wairua ) of a male facial moko acknowledges the wearer's mana.
Source — Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown; Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Haehae: To lacerate; an early form of moko where women would lacerate themselves during mourning and place soot in the wounds.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Pūhoro: Thigh tattoo; also refers to a design where the background is blackened and lines are left clear.
Source — Te Aka Māori Dictionary, "pūhoro", maoridictionary.co.nz, Unknown; Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown
Atua: Gods, deities. The mythological origins of Tā Moko are derived from the world of the atua.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Rangatira: Chief, noble, person of high rank.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Whakairo tuhi / Hopara makaurangi: Terms for temporary application of designs on the face using soot, blue clay, or red ochre, as practiced before the knowledge of permanent Tā Moko was brought from Rarohenga.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Pōngiangia: A Tā Moko design on the nostrils.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Pīhere: A Tā Moko design by the mouth.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Ngū: A Tā Moko design on the upper part of the nose.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Tīwhana: Lines of tattooing on the eyebrows.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Wai ngārahu / Māpara / Kāpara / Awe kāpara / Kauri kāpia / Ahi tā moko / Ruangārehu: Various terms for the pigments used in Tā Moko, typically charcoal from resinous trees or vegetable caterpillars, mixed with oils or liquids from plants.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Whakataerangi: The process of producing pigments, involving a specially designed furnace and mixing ashes with oil or liquid to form a solid mass.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Āwheto / Āwheto hōtete: Vegetable caterpillar, used as a source for pigment.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Uhi matarau: Serrated, comb-like chisels used to place pigment into the skin.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Uhi kōhiti: Flat-bladed chisels.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
He māhoe: A small mallet or fern stalk used to tap the uhi during the tattooing process.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Muka: Prepared flax, used to apply pigment into incisions.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Toi moko: Ancient preserved Māori heads, often detailed with intricate tattoos, which acted like photographs of loved ones or trophies of war.
Source — The Guardian, "Ancient preserved heads give up their secrets as Māori tattoos see ...", theguardian.com, 2025-10-18
Moko kanohi: Full facial tattoo, typically for men.
Source — The Guardian, "Ancient preserved heads give up their secrets as Māori tattoos see ...", theguardian.com, 2025-10-18
Moko kauae: Chin tattoo, typically for women.
Source — The Guardian, "Ancient preserved heads give up their secrets as Māori tattoos see ...", theguardian.com, 2025-10-18
Myth
Any non-Māori can get a Tā Moko design.
Correction
Tā Moko is an important cultural practice that visually signifies someone's whakapapa (genealogy ), identity, and status within Māori society. Non-Māori cannot receive Tā Moko because it requires Māori recognition and the conferral of cultural status, which cannot be authentically given outside of that context. Instead, non-Māori can receive kirituhi, which are Māori-inspired designs that do not carry the sacred cultural significance or lineage of Tā Moko.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown; France24, "In New Zealand, Moko tattoos experience revival as Māori 'reclaim a sense of identity'", observers.france24.com, 2022-07-29
Myth
Tā Moko is merely a decorative tattoo.
Correction
Tā Moko is far more than just a decoration; it is a profound cultural expression that tells the story of the wearer's identity, lineage, achievements, and social status. Each line and pattern is intentional and deeply meaningful, serving as a visual representation of their whakapapa and place within Māori society.
Source — Polynesian Cultural Center Blog, "Tā Moko: The Art of Māori Tattooing", Polynesia.com, Unknown; Al Jazeera, "‘My culture on my face’: New Zealand’s Maori assert identity", aljazeera.com, 2020-02-17
Myth
All Māori tattoos are the same or generic Polynesian designs.
Correction
No two Māori tattoos are alike. They are highly intricate and detailed, custom-designed to reflect the individual wearer's unique whakapapa, achievements, and social position. While some motifs may be universal, the overall design is specific to the individual and their tribal affiliations.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, "Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko", ZealandTattoo.co.nz, Unknown; World History Encyclopedia, "Traditional Maori Tattoo of New Zealand", worldhistory.org, 2019-06-06
Myth
Tā Moko is an ancient art form that has remained unchanged.
Correction
While Tā Moko has ancient origins, its practice and techniques have evolved over time. For example, traditional tools like uhi (chisels ) were replaced by needles and later tattoo machines during periods of suppression and revival. The art form continues to adapt while maintaining its core cultural significance.
Source — Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Tā moko – Māori tattooing", teara.govt.nz, 2016
Myth
Wearing Tā Moko is always accepted and celebrated in modern New Zealand society.
Correction
Despite a significant revival and increased visibility, individuals wearing Tā Moko, particularly on the face, still face discrimination and racist abuse. Efforts are ongoing to combat this discrimination and ensure full acceptance.
Source — The Guardian, "Māori moko facial tattoos revived by a new generation with designs on the future", theguardian.com, 2022-06-11; France24, "In New Zealand, Moko tattoos experience revival as Māori 'reclaim a sense of identity'", observers.france24.com, 2022-07-29
The tatau represents identity, courage, genealogy, and spiritual belonging within Fa'a Samoa.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
The pe'a, the traditional male tattoo, covers the body from the waist to the knees and signifies a man's readiness to serve his family, village, and culture, and is a spiritual covenant.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
The malu, the traditional female tattoo, is applied from the upper thigh to just below the knee and signifies a woman's role as a source of protection and nurture within her 'aiga (extended family ) and community. The word 'malu' means to shelter, protect, or shade.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Shark teeth (Nifo niho ) motifs symbolize protection, guidance, and ferocity, and are tied to the god Tagaloa and the deep ocean.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Spear heads (Fa'amanii ) motifs represent warrior spirit, courage, and readiness to defend the family and village.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Ocean patterns (Tatau o le vasa ) symbolize the sea as a source of life, travel, and ancestral connection. For diaspora Samoans, it marks distance crossed.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Symmetry and flow in tatau designs represent balance between the individual and the community, the human and the sacred.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
The Upega (net ) motif symbolizes prosperity, cooperation, community, and tradition. It represents providing food, the need for coordination in hunting, and the community uniting families. The malu's resemblance to a net also relates to protection and community.
Source — Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, Net, Polynesian Tattoo Symbols, Unknown
Other common tatau motifs include Ali’ao (trochus shell ), Matapisu (mussel), Vaetuli (sandpiper footprint), Ulutao (spearhead), tuitui/vana (sea urchin), I’a (fish), Gogo (tern/seagull), Ave’au (starfish), ‘Alu’alu (jellyfish), Atualoa (centipede), Anufe (worm), Talapaogo (thorny edge), Taetuli (“sting” caterpillar), Laupaogo (pandanus), Sigano (male pandanus flower), Lau’ulu (breadfruit leaf), Tumoa (banana pod), Moafa’i (banana bud), Vae’ali (legs of wooden headrest), ‘aso (fale) (ribs of the Fale Samoa house), ‘Aso faaifo (descending ribs), Tuaniu (coconut leaflet mid-rib), Fa’amasina (laufala) (dried pandanus roll), Togitogi (poking marks), and Selu/fa’a laufao (comb).
Source — Measina Samoa, Samoan Mālōfie Motifs and Their Meanings, Measina Samoa, 2024
The basic tool kit of a tufuga ta tatau (Samoan tattooist ) includes a set of tattoo combs (`au), a short wooden rod or mallet (sausau), a mortar and pestle, and a palette for mixing pigment.
Source — Te Papa, au (tattooing implement), Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand, Unknown
The `au (tattooing combs ) are traditionally made of three components: a small bone comb (or chisel) from boar’s tusk, a turtle shell plate, and a wooden handle, all attached with coconut fiber. These combs come in different widths for various line qualities.
Source — Te Papa, au (tattooing implement), Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand, Unknown
Modern `au may replace turtle shell with Perspex or metal, and coconut fiber with nylon fishing line, to allow for sterilization and due to restrictions on turtle fishing.
Source — Te Papa, au (tattooing implement ), Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand, Unknown
The sausau is a wooden rod used to strike the `au, depositing pigment into the skin.
Source — Te Papa, au (tattooing implement ), Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand, Unknown
Traditionally, pigment was made from the soot of the candlenut (lama nut ), collected by placing a coconut shell over smoldering nuts, and then mixed with sugar water. Nowadays, commercial inks are more commonly used.
Source — National Park Service, Samoan Art in the Tatau (Tattoo), National Park Service, 2019
The tattooing technique is hand-tapping, where the tufuga uses the sausau to rhythmically strike the `au.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
The tufuga works with two assistants, the ‘au toso, who stretch the skin, wipe ink and blood, and support the process.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Receiving the pe’a is an intensely painful rite of passage, carried out over multiple sessions across days or weeks, signifying deep cultural significance and readiness for adult life and service.
Source — NZGeo, Tatau: A History of Sāmoan Tattooing, NZGeo, Unknown
Tattooing ceremonies are often accompanied by rituals, prayers, and singing, creating a profound spiritual connection.
Source — Measina Samoa, Samoan Mālōfie Motifs and Their Meanings, Measina Samoa, 2024
For men, the pe'a is typically received at the onset of puberty and prepares individuals for entering le saofaliga a matai (the village council of chiefs ).
Source — National Park Service, Samoan Art in the Tatau (Tattoo), National Park Service, 2019
The female malu is lighter and its application is less ritualized compared to the pe'a, but still marks a significant transition in a woman's life.
Source — NZGeo, Tatau: A History of Sāmoan Tattooing, NZGeo, Unknown
Women sing songs to occupy and deter the pain of the person being tattooed during the sessions.
Source — National Park Service, Samoan Art in the Tatau (Tattoo ), National Park Service, 2019
The role of tufuga ta tatau (master tattooist ) has been maintained for centuries through hereditary succession within two clans: the Sa Su'a family from Savai'i and the Sa Tulou'ena family from Upolu. These families hold the knowledge, tools, and authority to perform the tatau.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Su'a Sulu'ape Paulo II (1949/1950 – 1999 ) was a prominent tufuga ta tatau from Matafa'a, Samoa, based in New Zealand since the 1970s. He was born into one of the leading families of tattooists in Samoa and contributed to sharing the art form beyond the Samoan community, developing international connections with tattooists across the world.
Source — Wikipedia, Su'a Sulu'ape Paulo II, Wikipedia, Unknown
Su'a Sulu'ape Paulo II's father was Sulu'ape Paulo I, and his brothers Su'a Sulu'ape Petelo, Su'a Sulu'ape Alaiva'a Petelo, and Su'a Sulu'ape Lafaele are also respected master tattooists.
Source — Wikipedia, Su'a Sulu'ape Paulo II, Wikipedia, Unknown
Su'a Uilisone Fitiao is a tufuga ta tatau and one of the founding members of Folauga o le Tatau Malaga Aganu’u Fa’asamoa (Fa’asamoa Arts ). He trained for 7 years with tattoo masters in Samoa and has dedicated his life to sharing Samoan indigenous arts, particularly tatau, with people of all backgrounds globally, emphasizing respect for the culture.
Source — Fa'asamoa Arts, The Traveling Tufuga Ta Tatau: Samoan Tattooing Around the World, Fa'asamoa Arts, 2023
The Sulu'ape family, based globally including Samoa and Aotearoa New Zealand, are recognized as Tufuga tātatau, masters of tātatau, and are considered custodians of the tradition.
Source — Auckland Museum, The art of Samoan tātatau and tatau (tattooing and tattoo ), Auckland Museum, 2016 (Updated 2021)
Su'a Sulu'ape Alaiva'a Petelo has maintained and extended the influence of the Sulu'ape family internationally since Paulo's death, with his sons also continuing the tradition.
Source — Wikipedia, Su'a Sulu'ape Paulo II, Wikipedia, Unknown
Western missionaries actively suppressed the practice of tā tatau from the 1850s onwards. Where it survived, it became a private ritual rather than a communal one.
Source — NZGeo, Tatau: A History of Sāmoan Tattooing, NZGeo, Unknown
Colonial authorities restricted the practice of tatau, and many diaspora Samoans of the second and third generations grew up distant from the practice.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Despite suppression, the Samoan tatau survived due to a combination of factors, including young men traveling to different parts of the archipelago to get tattooed when local chiefs banned the practice in the 1860s.
Source — Sapiens.org, How the Samoan Tattoo Survived Colonialism, Sapiens.org, 2019
Samoan independence led to a revival of tā tatau. In the 1960s and 1970s, Samoans arriving in New Zealand for work introduced the practice to the country.
Source — NZGeo, Tatau: A History of Sāmoan Tattooing, NZGeo, Unknown
Today, the tradition is experiencing one of its strongest periods of revival. Tufuga ta tatau travel internationally to serve diaspora communities, and young Samoans are receiving the pe'a and malu in growing numbers.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
UNESCO has recognized the importance of Samoa's living cultural heritage, and the tatau is widely treated as an inseparable part of that ecosystem.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Tatau: The Polynesian word from which the English word "tattoo" originates. It means appropriate, balanced, and fitting. The word is thought to be onomatopoeic, capturing the tapping sound of the tattooing comb being struck with a mallet. It can also be defined as "striking till we reach a satisfactory conclusion or completion."
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; Australian Museum, The Meaning of Ta Tau - Samoan Tattooing, Australian Museum, 2018; Pasefika, Meaning of Tatau 2, Pasefika, Unknown
Pe'a: The traditional male tattoo of Samoa, also called malofie, covering the body from the waist to the knees in dense, symmetrical geometric patterns. It means "flying fox" and refers to the dark charcoal color of the tattoo. Receiving a pe'a is a rite of passage tied to a man's readiness to serve his family, village, and culture, and is a spiritual covenant.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; Australian Museum, The Meaning of Ta Tau - Samoan Tattooing, Australian Museum, 2018
Malu: The traditional female tattoo of Samoa, applied from the upper thigh to just below the knee. It is visually lighter and more open than the pe'a. The word 'malu' means to shelter, protect, or shade, signifying a woman's role as a source of protection and nurture within her 'aiga (extended family ) and community.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; Australian Museum, The Meaning of Ta Tau - Samoan Tattooing, Australian Museum, 2018
Tufuga ta tatau: The master tattooist, one of the most respected figures in traditional Samoan society. They are cultural custodians, spiritual intermediaries, and keepers of genealogical knowledge.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Soga'imiti: A Samoan man who wears a completed pe'a, a title that commands deep respect.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Pe'a mutu: A man who begins but does not complete the pe'a. Historically, this carried social weight, signifying a shortfall in courage and endurance.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
'Au: The tattooing combs, part of the tufuga ta tatau's tool kit, made of bone (often boar's tusk ), turtle shell, and a wooden handle, bound with coconut fiber.
Source — Te Papa, au (tattooing implement), Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand, Unknown
Sausau: A wooden rod used to strike the 'au, driving the pigment into the skin.
Source — Te Papa, au (tattooing implement ), Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand, Unknown
'Au toso: Assistants who stretch the skin, wipe ink and blood, and support the tattooing process.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Lama nut: Candlenut, traditionally used to produce soot for the tattoo pigment.
Source — National Park Service, Samoan Art in the Tatau (Tattoo ), National Park Service, 2019
Myth
Samoan tatau is merely a decorative body art or a fashion statement.
Correction
The tatau is far more than body art; it is a declaration of identity, a mark of cultural belonging, and a covenant between the individual, their community, and their ancestors. It is earned through pain and ceremony, never bought, and represents courage, genealogy, and spiritual belonging within Fa'a Samoa.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; Australian Museum, The Meaning of Ta Tau - Samoan Tattooing, Australian Museum, 2018
Myth
It is acceptable for non-Samoans to receive a pe'a or malu, or to get Polynesian tattoos with Samoan designs without understanding their cultural significance.
Correction
The pe'a and malu are sacred cultural practices and rites of passage. While some tufuga ta tatau may tattoo non-Samoans who show respect for the culture, it is widely considered cultural appropriation for non-Polynesians to get these specific traditional tattoos, especially the pe'a or malu, without a deep understanding and respect for their profound cultural and spiritual weight. The designs are not merely ornamental but carry deep meanings related to identity, genealogy, and service within Samoan society.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; BuzzFeed, Non-Polynesians With Polynesian Tattoos Is Not Okay, BuzzFeed, 2024; Scribd, Significance of the Samoan Malu Tattoo, Scribd, Unknown
Myth
A man who starts but does not complete a pe'a faces no social consequences.
Correction
A man who begins but does not complete the pe'a is called a pe'a mutu, a broken or incomplete tattoo. Historically, this carried real social weight, signifying a shortfall in the courage and endurance expected for full adult life and service.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; Facebook, This is what we know of how the art of tattoo came to ..., Facebook, 2019
Malu: The traditional female tattoo of Samoa, applied from the upper thigh to just below the knee. It is visually lighter and more open than the pe'a. The word 'malu' means to shelter, protect, or shade, signifying a woman's role as a source of protection and nurture within her 'aiga (extended family ) and community.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; Australian Museum, The Meaning of Ta Tau - Samoan Tattooing, Australian Museum, 2018
Tufuga ta tatau: The master tattooist, one of the most respected figures in traditional Samoan society. They are cultural custodians, spiritual intermediaries, and keepers of genealogical knowledge.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Soga'imiti: A Samoan man who wears a completed pe'a, a title that commands deep respect.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Pe'a mutu: A man who begins but does not complete the pe'a. Historically, this carried social weight, signifying a shortfall in courage and endurance.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
'Au: The tattooing combs, part of the tufuga ta tatau's tool kit, made of bone (often boar's tusk ), turtle shell, and a wooden handle, bound with coconut fiber.
Source — Te Papa, au (tattooing implement), Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand, Unknown
Sausau: A wooden rod used to strike the 'au, driving the pigment into the skin.
Source — Te Papa, au (tattooing implement ), Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand, Unknown
'Au toso: Assistants who stretch the skin, wipe ink and blood, and support the tattooing process.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025
Lama nut: Candlenut, traditionally used to produce soot for the tattoo pigment.
Source — National Park Service, Samoan Art in the Tatau (Tattoo ), National Park Service, 2019
Myth
Samoan tatau is merely a decorative body art or a fashion statement.
Correction
The tatau is far more than body art; it is a declaration of identity, a mark of cultural belonging, and a covenant between the individual, their community, and their ancestors. It is earned through pain and ceremony, never bought, and represents courage, genealogy, and spiritual belonging within Fa'a Samoa.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; Australian Museum, The Meaning of Ta Tau - Samoan Tattooing, Australian Museum, 2018
Myth
It is acceptable for non-Samoans to receive a pe'a or malu, or to get Polynesian tattoos with Samoan designs without understanding their cultural significance.
Correction
The pe'a and malu are sacred cultural practices and rites of passage. While some tufuga ta tatau may tattoo non-Samoans who show respect for the culture, it is widely considered cultural appropriation for non-Polynesians to get these specific traditional tattoos, especially the pe'a or malu, without a deep understanding and respect for their profound cultural and spiritual weight. The designs are not merely ornamental but carry deep meanings related to identity, genealogy, and service within Samoan society.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; BuzzFeed, Non-Polynesians With Polynesian Tattoos Is Not Okay, BuzzFeed, 2024; Scribd, Significance of the Samoan Malu Tattoo, Scribd, Unknown
Myth
A man who starts but does not complete a pe'a faces no social consequences.
Correction
A man who begins but does not complete the pe'a is called a pe'a mutu, a broken or incomplete tattoo. Historically, this carried real social weight, signifying a shortfall in courage and endurance.
Source — The Koko Samoa, Samoan Tatau: Sacred Meaning of the Pe'a and Malu, The Koko Samoa, 2025; Facebook, This is what we know of how the art of tattoo came to ..., Facebook, 2019
The word 'tattoo' originates from the Tahitian word 'tatau', meaning 'to tap lightly', which imitates the sound of traditional tattooing ('tat-tat').
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
In ancient Tahitian culture, tattoos were more than body decoration; they served as a language, a symbol of power, and a mark of honor, indicating social status, wealth, health, origin, values, and the ability to endure pain.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Enata represents relatives, which can be a man, a woman, or a divine figure. If depicted upside down, it signifies defeated enemies.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
The shark's tooth (Niho peata ), depicted as a row of triangles, symbolizes bravery, heroism, leadership, and vitality.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
A spearhead (Fa’aulutao ) is associated with embracing the inner warrior, symbolizing victory in battle, protection, and endurance. It was a popular symbol among the warrior class.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
The ocean, often represented by waves, is seen by Polynesians as a link between the visible and invisible worlds, the flow of life and death, a second home, a peaceful place of rest in the afterlife, and a symbol of constant change and life's flow.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Tikis, primarily from the Marquesan style, represent human ancestors who became semi-gods. They convey strength, masculinity, good luck, fertility, and protection from dangers and evil spirits.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
The turtle is a significant creature symbolizing vitality, endurance, health, strength, tribe, family unity, and stitching families back together.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Lizards are believed to protect people from evil, facilitate communication with gods, bring good luck, provide access to the spiritual world, and possess the power to harm the disrespectful. Gods (atua ) often appeared as lizards.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Stingrays are associated with protection and defense, believed to share their superpowers with those who bear their tattoo.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Dolphins embody freedom, guidance, and protection. In Polynesian mythology, dolphins guided the Maori to their promised land and protected them from sharks.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Traditional Tahitian tattooing tools, called 'tatatau', consist of a comb with 3 to 20 needles carved from bone, shell, or shark's teeth.
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
The tattooing technique involves placing the comb on the skin and tapping the handle with a second wooden stick (mallet ) to puncture the skin and insert the pigment.
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
The traditional tattooing process requires two artists: one to stretch the skin and the other to perform the tapping (tat-tau-ing ).
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
The ink used in traditional Tahitian tattooing was produced from charcoal made from the ti’a’iri (candlenut tree ), diluted in oil or water.
Source — Tahiti Tourisme, "Polynesian tattooing", Tahiti Tourisme, Unknown
In ancient Tahitian society, tattoos were linked to important rituals, such as the passage from puberty to adulthood and marriage.
Source — Tahiti Tourisme, "Polynesian tattooing", Tahiti Tourisme, Unknown
Polynesians held 'tatau' ceremonies that lasted from several days to several weeks to celebrate the completion of the tattooing challenge, which was a test of endurance.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Tattoos were considered a gift from the gods that bestowed supernatural power (Mana ) on the wearer, offering protection, prestige, good health, well-being, and fertility.
Source — Tahiti Tourisme, "Polynesian tattooing", Tahiti Tourisme, Unknown
James Samuela is a native Tahitian master tattooist whose ancestors were among the first tattoo artists in Tahiti. He began tattooing professionally in 1996.
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO | Tahitian Tattoo Artist on Moorea, French Polynesia", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
Manu Farrarons is a documented Tahitian tattoo artist.
Source — Facebook, "Getting a Polynesian tattoo in Tahiti with Manu Farrarons", Facebook, 2022
Philippe Aukara, a Marquesan tattoo artist based in Papeete, practices various tattooing styles, including modern Polynesian tattooing and Marquesan tattooing, contributing to the preservation of Polynesian tattoo history and techniques.
Source — PONANT US Magazine, "The Polynesian tattoo: a history", PONANT US Magazine, 2024
With the arrival of Europeans and Christian missionaries in the 18th century, the art of Polynesian tattooing was nearly eradicated, as it was considered a sinful glorification of the skin and strictly forbidden.
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
Traditional tattooing was banned in 1986 by the Tahiti-based French Ministry of Health due to difficulties in sterilizing wooden and bone equipment.
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
The modern renaissance of Polynesian tattoo began in 1981, and it has since regained recognition as a highly respected art form.
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
The ban on traditional tattooing tools was lifted in 2001.
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
The rebirth of tatau is seen as a tremendous affirmation of identity in the South Pacific, with schools and social media now replacing oral transmission to share different techniques.
Source — PONANT US Magazine, "The Polynesian tattoo: a history", PONANT US Magazine, 2024
Tatau: The Tahitian word for tattoo, meaning 'to tap lightly', which interprets the sound of tattooing ('tat-tat' ).
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Tatatau: The traditional tattooing tool, typically a comb made from bone, shell, or shark's teeth.
Source — Moorea Tattoo, "POLYNESIAN TATTOO", Moorea Tattoo, Unknown
Enata: A word and motif representing relatives, which can be a man, a woman, or a divine figure.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Niho peata: The shark's tooth motif, symbolizing bravery, heroism, leadership, and vitality.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Fa’aulutao: The spearhead motif, symbolizing victory in battle, protection, and endurance.
Source — Off to Bora Bora, "Tahitian tattoos: Everything you need to know before getting one", Off to Bora Bora, Unknown
Mana: The life force or supernatural power that tattoos were believed to preserve and protect.
Source — Tahiti Tourisme, "Polynesian tattooing", Tahiti Tourisme, Unknown
Myth
Polynesian tattoos are merely body ornamentation.
Correction
In ancient Polynesian society, tattoos were far more than body ornaments. They were a powerful means of communication and expression, symbolizing a person's genealogy, social rank, identity, history, culture, and values.
Source — Tahiti Tourisme, "Polynesian tattooing", Tahiti Tourisme, Unknown
Myth
It is always disrespectful for non-Polynesians to get a Polynesian tattoo.
Correction
While some Polynesians may find it disrespectful, many believe that if a non-Polynesian understands the history, culture, and traditions behind the tattoo, and works with a native Polynesian artist, it can be an acceptable way to honor the culture. The key is respect and understanding, not merely copying designs.
Source — Reddit, "Is it okay to get a Polynesian tattoo as a white guy?", Reddit, 2023
Source — Facebook, "Are non-polynesians getting polynesian tattoos cultural appropriation?", Facebook, 2025
Tongan warriors were traditionally tattooed from the waist to the knees with geometrical patterns, primarily consisting of repeated triangle motifs, bands, and areas of solid black.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, Polynesian Tattoo: History, Meanings and Traditional Designs, Zealand Tattoo, Unknown
The placement of tattoos on the body held significant meaning in Polynesian cultures, including Tongan. The upper body (head, higher trunk ) is associated with the spiritual world and heaven, while the lower body (lower trunk, legs, feet) relates to the earthly world. The back may relate to the past, and the front to the future. The left side is generally associated with women, and the right with men.
Source — Zealand Tattoo, Polynesian Tattoo: History, Meanings and Traditional Designs, Zealand Tattoo, Unknown
Specific body placements are linked to particular meanings:
Source — Zealand Tattoo, Polynesian Tattoo: History, Meanings and Traditional Designs, Zealand Tattoo, Unknown
Tongan tattoo motifs are derived from decorative elements found in other Tongan art forms, such as wood carving, mat weaving, and barkcloth ornamentation (ngatu/kupesi ).
Source — Lars Krutak, Embodied Symbols of the South Seas: Tattoo in Polynesia, Lars Krutak, 2013
The traditional Tongan word for tattooing is tatatau, derived from ta (to strike, hit, or tap ) and tatau (same, similar, symmetrical, balanced). Poetically, tatatau infers a symmetrical balance achieved through rhythmic beats.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Traditional Tongan tattooing tools, called "bone combs," resembled hair combs with grooved edges and were sharp enough to be used as blades. These tools were made of bone (including human bone ) and turtle shell.
Source — CPR, Making A Mark: Ancient Tonga Tattoo Tools May Illustrate Birth Of Polynesian Body Art, CPR, 2019
The tattooing process for Tongan commoners was performed by tufunga tatatau. The process could take months or even years to complete, with tufunga tatatau being compensated with traditional goods such as clubs, mats, and bark cloth.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Tattooing high chiefs was a practice often performed by non-Tongans, typically tufuga from neighboring Samoa, who were revered for their sacred duty of tattooing high-ranking individuals.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Young Tongan males were typically tattooed in their mid to late teens, and tattooing was considered a necessary part of becoming a Tongan man. Untattooed men were often considered less desirable by women and taunted by peers.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Specific tattoo artist guilds existed in Tonga before tattooing was outlawed. Tattoo patterns were discussed with the individual and their families and were marked unceremoniously.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
The traditional Tongan tatatau process is being revived, with tools constructed as they were in traditional times, made of bone and turtle shell.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Suʻa Suluʻape ʻAisea Toetuʻu is a world-renowned tattoo artist of Tongan and Filipino descent, based in Hawaiʻi. He apprenticed under Samoan master tattooist Suʻa Suluʻape Alaivaʻa and was instrumental in the revival of traditional Tongan tatatau. In 2010, he demonstrated tatatau in Tonga, tattooing members of the royal family, and aims to institutionalize the practice within the Tongan village environment.
Source — Soul Signature Tattoo, Sua Suluape Toeutu'u Aisea, Soul Signature Tattoo, Unknown ; Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Suʻa Suluʻape Alaivaʻa is a Samoan master tattooist who mentored Suʻa Suluʻape ʻAisea Toetuʻu. His knowledge of traditional tattooing was crucial in outlining and reviving Tongan tatatau.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Terje Koloamatangi is a Tongan artist and cultural tattoo practitioner (Tufunga Tātatau ) dedicated to the revival of tātatau faka-Tonga.
Source — Te Papa, Tongan tattooing: Reconnecting to fonua across time and space, Te Papa, 2022
Carl Cocker is a renowned New Zealand Tongan Polynesian tattoo artist and the founder of Kalia Tattoo, specializing in both traditional and contemporary Polynesian tattoo styles.
Source — Kalia Tattoo, Discover Polynesian Tattoo Designs by Tonga, Kalia Tattoo, Unknown
In Tonga, tattooing was a vibrant part of the culture until the early 1800s. With the arrival of Westerners and the conversion of Tongan chiefs to Christianity, traditional practices, including tattooing, were outlawed. Tonga underwent radical political and religious changes, leading to the destruction and obliteration of many traditional customs.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
The Tongan government outlawed traditional tattooing in 1839, deeming it unnatural in the Christian world.
Source — Tatatau - Traditional Tongan Tattoo - Ta Vaka, TONGANS DID NOT INVENT TATTOOING, Tatatau - Traditional Tongan Tattoo - Ta Vaka, 2010
Despite the outlawing, many chiefs and other Tongans continued to travel to Samoa to get tattooed as late as the 1950s, though this practice eventually died off by the 1970s and 1980s.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
The modern revival of tattooing in the Pacific, including Tonga, gained renewed interest among island youth and communities in the 1990s, driven by a desire to revitalize ancient traditions and express islander pride.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
The revival of Tongan tatatau was significantly advanced by individuals like Suʻa Suluʻape ʻAisea Toetuʻu, who, after apprenticing under Samoan master tattooist Suʻa Suluʻape Alaivaʻa, began the process of reviving traditional Tongan tatatau in the early 2000s. In 2010, he demonstrated tatatau in Tonga, tattooing members of the royal family, marking the first instance of traditional tattooing being performed in Tonga since the 1800s.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
The revived tradition of tatatau has become a vaka (vehicle ) for reviving the past, symbolizing an ancient journey from the past to the present and reminding Tongans to uphold their cultural traditions.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Tatatau: The traditional Tongan word for tattooing or skin marking. It is composed of two words: ta (to strike, hit, or tap ) and tatau (same, similar, symmetrical, balanced). Poetically, tatatau infers a symmetrical balance achieved through rhythmic beats.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Tufunga Tatatau: The term for a traditional Tongan tattoo artist. In Tonga, this was not an inherited role; individuals skilled in the art could apprentice to become recognized as master tattooists.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Ta Vaka: A term adopted to describe the journey of completing the traditional Tongan tatatau, symbolizing an ancient journey from the past to the present and serving as a vehicle for cultural revival.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012
Myth
Tattooing originated in Samoa and was not a historical Tongan practice.
Correction
While Tongan tattooing was influenced by other Pacific Island cultures, particularly Samoa, the traditional Tongan word for tattooing, tatatau, is composed of Tongan words (ta and tatau ), indicating a home-grown tradition. Archaeological evidence, such as ancient bone tattoo tools found in Tonga, further supports the long history of tattooing in Tonga.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012 ; CPR, Making A Mark: Ancient Tonga Tattoo Tools May Illustrate Birth Of Polynesian Body Art, CPR, 2019
Myth
The origin story of tattooing in Tonga states that a young chief was instructed to "tattoo the women, and not the men," but mistakenly reversed the order, leading to men being tattooed.
Correction
This is a traditional Tongan origin story for tattooing. While it explains why men were primarily tattooed, it is a myth and not a factual account of the historical development of Tongan tattooing. The story highlights the cultural significance and gender roles associated with tattooing in Tonga.
Source — Matador Network, Tattooing and Traditional Tongan Tattoo, Matador Network, 2012 ; Scribd, Reviving Tongan Tatatau Traditions, Scribd, Unknown
Myth
Tongan tattooing was exclusively for men, and women were not tattooed.
Correction
While Tongan males were primarily tattooed, particularly from the waist to the knees, historical accounts and an old Fijian story suggest that Tongan women were also tattooed. The extent and nature of female tattooing in Tonga before the general ban in 1839 is debated among researchers.
Source — Lars Krutak, THE ART OF NATURE: TATTOO HISTORY OF WESTERN OCEANIA, Lars Krutak, 2013 ; eScholarship, “Tattoo the Women, but Not the Men”: Female Tattooing in Tonga, eScholarship, 2023
Editorial note. This reference guide is a living document. If you are a practitioner or researcher and find a citation that should be updated, replaced, or removed, please write to us via the contact page. For editorial standards and correction policy, see the editorial page.
Cross-reference terminology and motifs with the rest of the library.